Along with forests, grasslands and wetlands are also being converted to cropland and pasture at an increasing rate around the world – often for livestock farming and the export of agricultural products. An international team led by Senckenberg researchers has now analyzed for the first time where, for what purpose, and how quickly natural non-forest ecosystems are being converted into agricultural land on a global scale. The results show that these ecologically highly valuable areas are converted at a rate almost four times faster than forests. In a study published today in the scientific journal “PNAS,” the scientists emphasize the need for more comprehensive conservation strategies that extend beyond forests and also take into account consumption and international demand structures.
Grasslands are far more than just “green spaces” – they are one of our planet’s often overlooked service providers. Around 20 to 35 percent of the carbon sequestered worldwide is stored in these ecosystems. Thus, they contribute to mitigating climate change. At the same time, around 33 percent of global biodiversity hotspots are located in grassland regions. “Whether for water storage, protection against soil erosion, or as habitat for countless animal and plant species, grasslands provide important ecosystem services that directly benefit both local communities and the global climate,” explains first author Dr. Siyi Kan from the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center in Frankfurt, and she continues, “While a large number of studies on deforestation and its causes and impacts have already been carried out, the conversion of non-forest ecosystems – especially in connection with livestock farming and global agricultural demand – has hardly been studied to date.”
Together with the study’s last author, Senckenberg scientist Dr. Thomas Kastner, and researchers from Sweden, the USA, and the Netherlands, Kan investigated where and to what extent grasslands and farmlands encroached into formerly natural non-forest ecosystems between 2005 and 2020, what agricultural products were associated with these areas, and where and for what purpose they were ultimately used. “We define ‘natural non-forest ecosystems’ as all areas that are not cropland or pastureland, are not barren, and have a vegetation height of less than five meters, the common threshold for tree height in forests,” explains Kastner. “We have found that these ecosystems are being converted to pasture and cropland at an alarming rate. The main drivers are the demand both on the domestic and international markets for various agricultural products, especially meat, cereals, nuts, and oilseeds.”
The research team’s analysis shows that over the 15-year study period, grassland and wetlands were converted almost four times faster than wooded areas. Brazil leads the world with 13 percent of the area affected, followed by Russia, India, China, and the USA with around 6 percent each.
“The driving forces behind the conversion of non-forest ecosystems into arable land originate in the countries where the products grown on the converted land area are consumed – whether as food for humans, animal feed, or for other purposes such as bioenergy. Some plants, like rice and vegetables, are directly consumed as food; others, such as soy, maize, or rapeseed, often serve as animal feed, and yet other plant species are primarily used for bioenergy,” summarizes Kan. Globally, 54 percent of arable land conversion accounted for food production, while 34 percent was used to produce animal feed – with the latter share even exceeding 50 percent in Brazil, Argentina, the USA, China, and the EU.
Around 20 percent of global arable land conversion was for export production, and the figure for feed crops such as soy and maize was as high as 32 percent. “In Brazil and Argentina, around 70 percent of the total arable land converted and around 80 percent of the land used to grow animal feed accounted for export production. This clearly indicates the strong link between agricultural production and consumption in wealthy and fast-growing economies,” says Kastner.
“Our results show the risks that agricultural land conversion poses to individual regions, identify the natural non-forest ecosystems that are in particular need of protection, and offer suggestions where to start making changes along global supply chains. Since policy measures have focused primarily on protecting forests until now, there is a mounting pressure on other ecologically important but often overlooked habitats such as grasslands and open wetlands. To prevent this utilization pressure from simply shifting to other ecosystems, we need better coordinated political measures and greater responsibility on the part of producers and consumers in internationally networked supply chains,” appeals Kan.
Publication: S. Kan, S.A. Levy, E. Mazur, L. Samberg, U.M. Persson, L. Sloat, A.L.R. Segovia, L. Parente, & T. Kastner, Overlooked and overexploited: Extensive conversion of grasslands and wetlands driven by global food, feed, and bioenergy demand, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 123 (9) e2521183123, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2521183123 (2026).
Grasslands are far more than just “green spaces” – they are one of our planet’s often overlooked service providers. Around 20 to 35 percent of the carbon sequestered worldwide is stored in these ecosystems. Thus, they contribute to mitigating climate change. At the same time, around 33 percent of global biodiversity hotspots are located in grassland regions. “Whether for water storage, protection against soil erosion, or as habitat for countless animal and plant species, grasslands provide important ecosystem services that directly benefit both local communities and the global climate,” explains first author Dr. Siyi Kan from the Senckenberg Biodiversity and Climate Research Center in Frankfurt, and she continues, “While a large number of studies on deforestation and its causes and impacts have already been carried out, the conversion of non-forest ecosystems – especially in connection with livestock farming and global agricultural demand – has hardly been studied to date.”
Together with the study’s last author, Senckenberg scientist Dr. Thomas Kastner, and researchers from Sweden, the USA, and the Netherlands, Kan investigated where and to what extent grasslands and farmlands encroached into formerly natural non-forest ecosystems between 2005 and 2020, what agricultural products were associated with these areas, and where and for what purpose they were ultimately used. “We define ‘natural non-forest ecosystems’ as all areas that are not cropland or pastureland, are not barren, and have a vegetation height of less than five meters, the common threshold for tree height in forests,” explains Kastner. “We have found that these ecosystems are being converted to pasture and cropland at an alarming rate. The main drivers are the demand both on the domestic and international markets for various agricultural products, especially meat, cereals, nuts, and oilseeds.”
The research team’s analysis shows that over the 15-year study period, grassland and wetlands were converted almost four times faster than wooded areas. Brazil leads the world with 13 percent of the area affected, followed by Russia, India, China, and the USA with around 6 percent each.
“The driving forces behind the conversion of non-forest ecosystems into arable land originate in the countries where the products grown on the converted land area are consumed – whether as food for humans, animal feed, or for other purposes such as bioenergy. Some plants, like rice and vegetables, are directly consumed as food; others, such as soy, maize, or rapeseed, often serve as animal feed, and yet other plant species are primarily used for bioenergy,” summarizes Kan. Globally, 54 percent of arable land conversion accounted for food production, while 34 percent was used to produce animal feed – with the latter share even exceeding 50 percent in Brazil, Argentina, the USA, China, and the EU.
Around 20 percent of global arable land conversion was for export production, and the figure for feed crops such as soy and maize was as high as 32 percent. “In Brazil and Argentina, around 70 percent of the total arable land converted and around 80 percent of the land used to grow animal feed accounted for export production. This clearly indicates the strong link between agricultural production and consumption in wealthy and fast-growing economies,” says Kastner.
“Our results show the risks that agricultural land conversion poses to individual regions, identify the natural non-forest ecosystems that are in particular need of protection, and offer suggestions where to start making changes along global supply chains. Since policy measures have focused primarily on protecting forests until now, there is a mounting pressure on other ecologically important but often overlooked habitats such as grasslands and open wetlands. To prevent this utilization pressure from simply shifting to other ecosystems, we need better coordinated political measures and greater responsibility on the part of producers and consumers in internationally networked supply chains,” appeals Kan.
Publication: S. Kan, S.A. Levy, E. Mazur, L. Samberg, U.M. Persson, L. Sloat, A.L.R. Segovia, L. Parente, & T. Kastner, Overlooked and overexploited: Extensive conversion of grasslands and wetlands driven by global food, feed, and bioenergy demand, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 123 (9) e2521183123, https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2521183123 (2026).
